The Bicolano people and the Visayan myths use different names for their deities, but the activities in their creation myths are similar.

Deities named Mayari/Malayari/Apûng Malyari, are prevalent in Tagalog, Kapampangan, and Sambal mythologies.

The moon deity Bulan and serpent deity Bakunawa appear in Hiligaynon, Karay-a, Cebuano and Bicolano mythologies.

Moon-swallowing monsters named Tambanokano in Mandaya and Manobo mythologies. The Mandaya Tambanokano is depicted as a crab, while the Manobo Tambanokano is depicted as a tarantula or scorpion.

Foe-deities named Gugurang and Asuang appear in Bicolano mythology and in Hiligaynon mythology named Agurang and Aswang, and a deity named Kabunian appears in the mythologies of the Ibaloi people, the Bontoc people, and the Ifugao people.

The deities, heroes, and creatures are different from each other, and do not form a unified narrative. Each story has multiple versions. In many cases, stories vary from place to place even within a single ethnic group.

The 7,000 Philippines islands divide into three main regions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao (which is subdivided into North and South). The difference in mythologies and belief systems is by ethnic group rather than geography. Some ethnic groups have influence in only a few towns, while others span provinces.

Creation Story: Story of Bathala (Tagalog) the story explains how Bathala became the ruler of the universe, the etiological explanation of the coconut tree, and how everything on Earth came to be.

The Creation: Lumawig (Igorot) Lumawig is a spirit god who created people in different areas and explains why people speak different languages.

The Flood Story: Lumawig (Igorot) Lumawig's two sons flood the Earth to bring up mountains so that they can catch pig and deer. However, this drowned all the people on Earth except for a brother and sister. Lumawig helped the two survive and after it subsided, the brother and sister married and repopulated the Earth (Etiological explanation for mountains).

The Sun And the Moon: the Sun and Moon created the stars. The Sun burned the stars and this upset the Moon. They begin to fight, but the Moon ran away, chased by the Sun.

The Children of the Limokon (Mandaya): The limokon bird laid eggs along a river that created man and woman. However, they were born on opposite sides of the river. One day the man saw the woman and they married and had children.

The Sun and the Moon (Mandaya): The Sun and Moon were married, but one day, the Sun got angry at the Moon and started to chase her. The Sun became angry at his first child, minced him and scattered him across the sky to form the stars. Another son was a gigantic crab who created lightning when he blinked. He lives in a hole in the bottom of the ocean and is responsible for the tides.

How the Moon and the Stars Came to Be (Bukidnon): At one time the sky was close to the ground. A spinster who was pounding rice struck the sky so hard it began to rise. Her comb and beads that she hung on the sky to dry rose with it and became the Moon and stars.

The Flood Story (Bukidnon): A big crab that crawled into the sea created the flood that drowned everyone except those who made a raft and survived upon it.

Origin (Bagobo) A boy and a girl were the only ones left on Mount Apo. They were weak because of a drought. However, the boy found a sugarcane that fed them until rain came. This is why they are called Bagobo.

Epic ‘Tudbulul’ (T’Boli): Tudbulu was a hero who organized a concert. He gathered music, attracting many people. Some of these people stayed and formed the T’boli people.

D’wata (T’boli): The Betoti found soil and brought it to D’wata. They spread out the soil and created land. The animals told Betoti that they needed someone to look after them. Betoti told D’wata. Man and woman were created out of statues.

Melu (B’laan): Melu created the Earth with his dead skin that came off as he cleaned himself. The remaining dead skin was used to make two men. However, Melu could not make their noses. Tau Tana appeared below the earth and helped him make noses. When they were done, they whipped the men until they started to move. Melu then told the men to save their dead skin and hair from which he made them companions. In the Beginning (B’laan)  – Four beings created the Earth and people. They tried using wax, then dirt. However, their noses were difficult to make. Melu was in a hurry and pressed his finger at the root of their noses. This is how the B’laan peoples’ noses were formed.

Bagobo: The world was created by Pamulak Manobo, who made the land and sea and the first humans. Rain comes when he throws water from the sky; showers are his spit. White clouds are smoke from the deities' fire. The sun created yellow clouds that make the colors of the rainbow.

Bicolano: the only things that existed were water and sky. Grandsons of the sky god Languit sought to attack the sky realm to have more power. The group was led by Daga, a god who controlled winds. Languit, in anger at his grandchildren's betrayal, struck them with lightning, instantly killing them. Bitoon, who did not join the upheaval, looked for her brothers, but was also accidentally struck by Languit's lightning. The sea god Tubigan calmed Languit. The two old gods gave the bodies of their dead grandchildren light. Bulan's body became the Moon, Aldao's (or Adlao) body became the Sun, and Bitoon's body became the stars. Daga's body was not given light and became the Earth.

Bisaya: one Bisaya cosmogony myth tells that a sacred bird of prey incited the sky and the sea to fight each other so that it could find somewhere to land, thus creating islands. Another Bisaya cosmogony myth tells that the deities Kaptan and Magwayen (or Maguayan) fought each other until, tired of war, the great bird Manaul dropped boulders upon them. The rocks became islands. Another Bisaya cosmogony myth tells Kaptan's son, wind god Lihangin and Magwayen's daughter, sea goddess Lidagat, were married and produced children. Three of these deities, led by Likalibutan, fought Kaptan, angering the supreme god; Lisuga, who was looking for her brothers, was accidentally hit by Kaptan. The four grandchildren of Kaptan and Magwayen perished. Kaptan accused Magwayen of a coup, but was later calmed down and the two deities grieved their grandchildren. Liadlao's body became the Sun, Libulan's body became the Moon, Lisuga's body became the stars, and the wicked Likalibutan's body became the Earth and had no light. Soon, a bamboo tree grew in the place where the first man, Sikalak, and the first woman, Sikabay were formed.

Blaan: The god Melu constantly rubbed his skin to make it pure white. He accumulated a lot of dead skin. He became annoyed and used the dead skin to create the Earth.

Bukidnon: in one Bukidnon cosmogony myth, the supreme god Magbabaya created the Earth after he saw that there was only absence – no sky and soil. He first made the eight elements, tumbaga (bronze), bulawan (gold), salapi (coins), bato (rocks), Gabon (clouds), ulan (rain), puthaw (iron), and tubig (water). From these elements, he created the sea, sky, Moon, and stars. In another Bukidnon cosmogony myth, Magbabaya (referred as Diwata na Magbabaya) created the world with the god Dadanhayan ha Sugay; before creating mankind, the two deities created the Incantus, six guardian deities that contain good and evil qualities and can send calamities if angered.

Ibaloi: The first things in existence were the skyworld and the underworld. Peoples on each side fought. A man from the underworld hit the sun god with an arrow; the sun god afterwards pushed up the skyworld and pushed down the underworld, and then created the Earth.

Ifugao: the universe has always existed and will always exist.

Ilokano: The Ilokano supreme deity ordered two primordial giants, Angalo and Aran, to create the world; the giant Anglao (or Angalo) dug the earth and made mountains. Anglao urinated into holes in the earth and made the rivers and seas, then put up the sky, the Sun, the Moon, and arranged the stars.

Kapampangan: The sky, Earth, planets, and stars were in existence before land came. During a war between the deities for the beautiful daughter of supreme deity Mangetchay the Earth was formed from stones thrown by the warring deities. Life on Earth was created by Mangetchay in remembrance of the deity's dearest daughter who died in war.

Manobo: Creation myths by the Manobo are diverse. One Manobo cosmogony from Talakogan in Agusan valley tells that the creation of the world was due to the god Makalindung, who set the world on iron posts; another Manobo cosmogony from Argawan and Hibung rivers states that the creation goddess, Dagau, created the world. Another Manobo cosmogony from the upper Agusan says that the world is shaped like a giant mushroom and deities shake its core when angered by humans.

Manuvu: In the beginning, there was only a formless void. The deity Manama or Sigalungan created the deities who assisted him in creation. He took two steel bars and fashioned the bars into a frame; he then scraped off his fingernails and molded them into a mass that eventually became the Earth.

Panay: The world was said to be initially formless in the old times. The sea, sky, and earth were mixed together. From the formless mist, deities Tungkung Langit and Alunsina appeared; they married and lived in the highest realm of eternal space. One day, Tungkung Langit fought and hurt Alunsina, driving Alunsina away. In Tungkung Langit's loneliness, he created the sea and land and took his wife's jewels to create the stars, Moon, and Sun. Despite this, Alunsina chose to stay free and never returned to Tungkung Langit, an early notion of divorce.

Suludnon: Only the sky and a wide expanse of water called Linaw at first existed. The primordial giants Laki and Bayi appeared from nowhere and were responsible for the creation of many things. Creation giantess Bayi caught the primordial earthworm which excreted the Earth; she also have birth to the wild animals that inhabit the Earth.

Tagalog: a sacred kite caused the sky and the sea to fight; the sky threw boulders onto the sea, forming islands; the kite afterwards built a nest on an island and left the sky and sea in peace.

Teduray: In the beginning, there was only sky and sea. Sualla (or Tullus-God) lived in the sky, while his sister Sinonggol lived in Bonggo, the land of the dead. Sualla visited the palace of the sun and touched one of the eight primordial wooden khnenentaos (statues), thus creating the first Teduray; from the rib of the man, Sualla created the first woman. When the man and woman had a child named Mentalalan, it became sick and the man sought Sualla's aid. Sualla gave a special medicine to the man, but before the man delivered the medicine to his son, a demon sent by Singgol changed it, which led to Mentalalan's death. Sualla afterwards convened a meeting with his four brothers, Mentail, Micael, Mintlafis, and Osman Ali to buy soil from the Navi. The soil was planted by Sualla at Colina, the center of the world. The soil grew, and Mentalalan was finally buried. From the boy's body, crops sprouted. In anger, Sinonggol threw her comb, which turned into the first boar that aimed to destroy the crops.

Bagobo: Deities live in the skyworld, which holds various realms, each ruled by a lesser divinity. The entrance to the skyworld has numerous kampilan swords that fight without any wielder. The underworld is called Gimokudan, where spirits with heavy misdeeds are engulfed by flames, while those with little misdeeds find their bodies covered with sores as they lie in an acid that burns like lemon juice. An underworld sub-realm called Banua Mebuyan, near a black river, is reserved for children who died at their mother's breast. These souls are nourished by the many-breasted goddess Mebuyan. Children's souls who graduate from Banua Mebuyan go to another realm to join souls dead of disease. All souls pass through Banua Mebuyan before going to Gimokudan. Another underworld realm is dedicated to those slain by swords or spears, where scars stay with the soul and plants are the color of blood.

Batak: The ancestral land of the Batak is called Kabatakan, which is found in the middle layer (fourth layer) of the universe. The universe has seven layers (lukap) consisting of a center tier (fourth layer) surrounded by ocean and inhabited by humans, animals, plants, super-human beings, and aggressive entities. Puyok, the highest sacred mountain there, is the original place of all malevolent panya’en; the Gunay Gunay, at the edge of the universe, is perceived as the place of origin of the divinities Baybay (goddess and master of rice) and Ungaw (god and master of bees).

Bicolano: The sky and waters were the first things in existence. After divine upheaval against the god Languit, the Sun, Moon, stars, and Earth were formed from the bodies of his dead grandchildren. An unnamed giant supports the world, where his finger movements cause earthquakes. If the giant's body moves, it would end the world.

Bisaya: The universe has seven layers; the first is uninhabited and empty. The second is Tibugnon and is made of water filled with mermaids and sea fairies who govern their kingdoms. The third layer is Idalmunon. It holds the bowels of the earth and is inhabited by underground spirits. The fourth layer is Lupan, where mankind and various supernatural beings live. The fifth layer is Kahanginan, which is the atmosphere and is the home of flying beings such as the bentohangin and hubot races. The sixth layer is Ibabaw-non, which is inhabited by special babaylans who intercede for man with spirits. The last and highest layer is Langit-non. It is the abode of Maka-ako, the creator of the universe. These seven layers can be classified in three categories, namely Kahilwayan, the skyworld realms ruled by Kaptan, Kamaritaan, the middleworld home of humans, ruled by Sidapa and Makaptan, and Kasakitan, the lowerworld realms ruled by Magyan and Sumpoy. Kasakitan has a unique sub-realm called Kanitu-nituhan that is ruled by the god Sisiburanen.

Bukidnon:The Banting is a small circular space of immense brightness present at the beginning, surrounded by a sacred rainbow. The realm called Haldan ta Paraiso (Garden of Paradise) was created by Diwta na Magbabaya from materials provided by Dadanhayan ha Sugay. The garden is where Agtayuban rests his wings. The upperworld and underworld each have seven tiers, but only three are identifiable. The middleworld is saucer-shaped, as is the sky.

Ibaloi: the skyworld and the underworld were once close to each other. This changed after a war between the two sides where a man from the underworld hit the sun god with an arrow. The sun god moved the two worlds apart, establishing a gap between. Earth was later established as the middleworld.

Ifugao: Initially, there are two mythical worlds, Daya and Lagud. Daya is downstream east, while Lagud is upstream west. This notion later developed into a layered concept of the universe. Daya became the upperworld. Its four layers are Hudog, Luktag, Hubulan, and Kabunian. Kabunian is the lowest of the upperworld, and is home to the god Liddum, the deity who directly communicated with mankind for the deities of the upper layers of the upperworld. Each realm's upper layer is believed to be earthen and filled with fields and gardens, while the lower surface is made of smooth blue stone. The middleworld is the mortal world, directly below the Kabunian layer, and has the broadest circumference in the universe, as both the upperworld and the lowerworld grow successively smaller as they approach the end of the celestial globe. The lowerworld is called Dalom, which is made of an indeterminate number of layers. The souls of those who were murdered go to its lowest level. Finally, the realm of Lagud was transformed by the layered universe concept into a far eastern sub-realm region.

Ilokano: The sky, Sun, Moon, stars, rivers, seas, and mountains were created by the giant Anglao upon the order of an unnamed supreme deity; the underworld is guarded by the giant dog, Lobo.

Kalinga: The universe looks like a big plate (the Earth) with a smaller dome (the sky) resting on it. The sky is opaque and solid and its rim is three meters thick.

Kankanaey: The middleworld is carried by four huge posts that stand on the lowerworld. A giant hog causes earthquakes every time it scratches against one of the posts. The lowerworld is called Aduongan and is inhabited by cannibals.

Kapampangan: the sky, Earth, planets, and stars were in existence while land was created after the war of the gods that was caused by the beauty of Kapampangan supreme deity Mangechay's divine daughter. The gods live on faraway planets, and travel from planet to planet, with each journey taking up to hundreds of years.

Manobo: The world is on iron posts created by the god Makalindung who lives in the center with a python. The sky is round and ends at the limit of the sea; this limit is the sea navel, where waters ascend and descend. The underworld is below the pillars of the earth and is divided into subsections where each Manobo nation is assigned a place. Sections exist for other tribes and for foreign peoples.

Mandaya: the Earth is flat but pressed into mountains by a mythological woman. The earth rests on the back of a gigantic eel that causes earthquakes when agitated.

Maranao: The world has seven layers. The earth and sky are divided into seven layers. Earth layers hold humans, karibangs, and a sea layer inhabited by nymphs. Each sky layer has a door guarded by a garoda; the sky's seventh layer is heaven, where the tree of life grows and whose leaves inscribes the names of all living humans. Once the leaf of a person ripens or dries and falls, the person dies. In one section of heaven, the jars containing the souls of every person alive exists; this jar area is guarded by the fearsome creature Walo.

Palaw-an: The earthly world is composed of seven stacked plates, with a center pole connecting them. Mankind lives in the middle of the fourth plate.

Sulodnon: The universe has three realms; the upperworld is Ibabawnon, which is divided into two realms, one for male deities and the other for female deities; the middleworld is Pagtung-an, where the earth is located; the lowerworld is Idadalmunon, housing the souls of the dead. Initially, there was only sky and an expanse of water called Linaw. Earth was established from the excretion of an earthworm found by Bayi, a creation giantess.

Tagalog: the upperworld is Kaluwalhatian, and is the home of deities who belong to the court of Tagalog supreme deity Bathala. The middleworld is the domain of mankind. other deities and mythological races. The underworld has two realms, Maca (where the spirits of good mortals go) and Kasanaan (where the spirits of sinful mortals go). Deities dwell in the underworld, notably Sitan and his four agents. Batala is a reappearing mountain realm located in the middleworld that is filled with the sacred tigmamanukan omen creatures.

Tagbanwa: The earthworld and the underworld are opposites – night in the earthworld is day in the underworld and vice versa. Rivers flow backward in the underworld, from sea to mountains, and rice is always eaten cold.

Tboli: The skyworld has seven layers, where the last layer is the dwelling of the supreme couple deities, Kadaw La Sambad and Bulon La Mogoas. Earth was formed from the body of the sterile god, S’fedat. The dead inhabit various afterworlds depending on the circumstances of death. The soul of those killed via swords in battle and murder go to Kayong, where the soul is greeted with music.. Souls that die a natural death go to Mogul, which has everything a soul desires.

When the world first began there was no land, but only the sea and the sky, and between them was a kite. One day the bird which had nowhere to light grew tired of flying about, so she stirred up the sea until it threw its waters against the sky. The sky, in order to restrain the sea, showered upon it many islands until it could no longer rise, but ran back and forth. Then the sky ordered the kite to light on one of the islands to build her nest, and to leave the sea and the sky in peace.

Now at this time the land breeze and the sea breeze were married, and they had a child which was a bamboo. One day when this bamboo was floating about on the water, it struck the feet of the kite which was on the beach. The bird, angry that anything should strike it, pecked at the bamboo, and out of one section came a man and from the other a woman.

Then the earthquake called on all the birds and fish to see what should be done with these two, and it was decided that they should marry. Many children were born to the couple, and from them came all the different races of people.

After a while the parents grew very tired of having so many idle and useless children around, and they wished to be rid of them, but they knew of no place to send them to. Time went on and the children became so numerous that the parents enjoyed no peace. One day, in desperation, the father seized a stick and began beating them on all sides.

This so frightened the children that they fled in different directions, seeking hidden rooms in the house—some concealed themselves in the walls, some ran outside, while others hid in the fireplace, and several fled to the sea.

Now it happened that those who went into the hidden rooms of the house later became the chiefs of the Islands; and those who concealed themselves in the walls became slaves. Those who ran outside were free men; and those who hid in the fireplace became negroes; while those who fled to the sea were gone many years, and when their children came back they were the white people.

Thousands and thousands of years ago, there was a time when the space occupied by the universe was vacant. The moon, the sun, the stars, and the earth were conspicuous by their absence. Only the vast expanse of water and the sky above it could be seen. The kingdom of the sky was under the rule of the great god Languit while the water was under the sovereignty of the god Tubigan.

Languit had a daughter called Dagat, the Sea, who became the wife of Paros, the wind, who was the son of Tubigan.

Four children were born to Dagat and Paros, three of whom were boys called Daga, Aldao, and Bulan, and one girl named Bitoon.

Daga, a strong man, possessed a body of rock; Aldao, a jolly fellow, had a body of gold; Bulan, a copper-made man, was a weakling; while the beautiful Bitoon was made of pure silver.

After the death of the father Paros, Daga, being the eldest son, succeeded in the control of the winds. Soon after, Dagat, the mother died, leaving her children under the care of the grandparents Languit and Tubigan.

After assuming the control of the winds, Daga became arrogant and ambitious, desiring to gain more power, so he induced his younger brothers to attack the kingdom of Languit. At first they refused; at Daga’s anger, Bulan and Aldao were constrained to join Daga in his plot.

Preparations were made and when everything was ready they set out on their expedition and began to attack the gates of the sky. Failing to open the gates, Daga let loose the winds in all directions so that the gate was destroyed and the brothers succeeded in gaining an entrance. But they were met by the enraged god Languit who sent out three bolts of lightning after them. All of them were struck by lightning. The copper body of Bulan melted into a ball so also with the golden body of Aldao. Daga’s body fell into the sea and became what is now the earth.

Their sister Bitoon, on discovering the absence of her brothers went out to seek them. But upon meeting the enraged god Languit, Bitoon was struck also by another bolt of lightning which broke her body into many pieces.

Then Languit descended from the sky and called Tubigan and accused him of helping their grandsons in their attack on his kingdom. But Tubigan defended himself saying he had no knowledge about the attack for he was asleep far down into the sea. Tubigan succeeded in pacifying Languit and the two regretted and wept over the loss of their grandchildren. Since they could not revive them, they gave to each body a light.

Thus the body of Bulan became the moon, Aldao became the sun, and the beautiful Bitoon became the stars in the heaven. But to Daga they did not give light and his body gave rise to the land on earth.

Tubigan then planted a seed which grew up into a bamboo tree. From one of its branches, came a man and a woman, who became the first parents of the human race. Three children were born to them. One called Maisog invented a fish trap. One day he caught such a very big and grotesque looking whale that he thought it was a god, so he ordered his people to worship it. The people gathered around and began to pray; but no sooner had they begun when gods from the sky appeared and commanded Maisog to throw the whale into the water and worship no one but the gods. But Maisog was not afraid and defied the gods. Languit, the king of the sky, struck Maisog with a lightning and stunned him. Then he scattered the people over the earth as a punishment. In this way the earth was peopled.

Maisog’s body was blackened by the lightning and all his descendants are black.

But Maisog’s first son was carried to the north and became the parent of the white people.

His other children were brought to the south where the sun was hot that it scorched their bodies so that all their people were of brown color.

The other people were carried to the east where they had to feed on clay due to scarcity of food. Because of this diet, their descendants were of yellow color.

In this way the earth came into being.

Thousands and thousands of years ago, there was a time when the space occupied by the universe was vacant. The moon, the sun, the stars, and the earth were conspicuous by their absence. Only the vast expanse of water and the sky above it could be seen. The kingdom of the sky was under the rule of the great god Languit, while the water was under the sovereignty of the god Tubigan.

Languit had a daughter called Dagat, the sea, who became the wife of Paros, the wind , who was the son of Tubigan.

Four children were born to Dagat and Paros, three of whom were boys called Daga, Aldao, and Bulan, and one girl called Bitoon.

Daga, a strong man, possessed a body of rock; Aldao, a jolly fellow, had a body of gold; Bulan, a copper-made man, was a weakling; while the beautiful Bitoon was made of pure silver.

After the death of their father Paros, Daga, being the eldest son, succeeded in control of the winds. Soon after, Dagat, the mother died, leaving her children under the care of the grandparents Languit and Tubigan.

After assuming control of the winds, Daga became arrogant and ambitious, desiring to gain more power, so he induced his younger brothers to attack the kingdom of Languit. At first they refused; at Daga’s anger, Bulan and Aldao were constrained to join him in his plot.

Preparations were made and when everything was ready, they set out on their expedition and began to attack the gates of the sky. Failing to open the gates, Daga let loose the winds in all directions so that the gate was destroyed and the brothers succeeded in gaining entrance. But they were met by the enraged Languit who set out three bolts of lightning after them. All of them were struck by lightning. The copper body of Bulan melted into a ball; so also was the golden body of Aldao. Daga’s body fell into the sea and became what is now the earth.

Their sister Bitoon, on discovering the absence of her brothers, went out to look for them. But upon meeting the enraged god Languit, Bitoon was also struck by another bolt of lightning which broke her body into many pieces.

Then Languit descended from the sky and called Tubigan and accused him of helping their grandsons in their attack on his kingdom. But Tubigan defended himself saying he had no knowledge about the attack for he was asleep far down into the sea. Tubigan succeeded in pacifying Languit and the two regretted and wept over the loss of their grandchildren. Since they could not revive them, they gave each body a light.

Tubigan then planted a seed which grew into a bamboo tree. From one of its branches came a man and a woman, who became the first parents of the human race. Three children were born to them. One called Maisog invented a fish trap. One day he caught such a very big and grotesque looking whale that he thought it was a god, so he ordered his people to worship it. The people gathered around and began to pray; but no sooner they had begun, when gods from the sky appeared and commanded Maisog to throw the whale to the water and worship no one but the gods. But Maisog was not afraid and defied the gods. Languit, the king of the sky, struck Maisog with lightning and stunned him. Then he scattered the people over the earth as a punishment. In this way the earth was peopled.

Maisog’s body was blackened by the lightning and all his descendants are black. But Maisog’s son was carried to the north and became the parent of the white people. His other children were brought to the south where the sun was hot and it scorched their bodies so that all their people were of brown color. The other people were carried to the east where they had to feed on clay due to scarcity of food. Because of this diet, their descendants were of yellow color.

Many, many years ago there was no earth or man. There was only the sky. Now, in the sky there were two brothers, Bulan and Adlao. The latter was the older and the stronger. But the former was proud and hated his older brother.

One day they had a quarrel. Bulan hurled bad words at Adlao, claimed superiority and challenged Adlao to a fight. The older brother only laughed at his younger brother. But his laugh was answered by Bulan who bellowed: “You coward, come and fight and I will show you my superiority. If you don’t fight, I will kill you.” And Bulan suddenly rushed to Adlao without waiting for an answer. Adlao was angered and he was forced to fight his younger brother.

And the fight commenced. It was a clash between two strengths. With his club, Bulan hit Adlao, but Adlao dodged the hit quickly. Then Bulan used his bolo, but again he missed Adlao. It was Adlao’s turn to hit. So, with his club he hit with all his might, first the eye of Bulan, then the arm of Bulan which became flat at the might of the stroke. Then with his bolo he cut Bulan’s flattened arm. When Bulan’s eye was hit and his arm was flattened and cut from his body, he cried with pain. His tears fell on the cut flattened arm. As Bulan foresaw his defeat with only one eye and one arm to fight with, he fled, and he was pursued by Adlao who was very angry and wanted to kill Bulan. And they kept running on and on, and chasing each other.

Now, the cut flattened arm of Bulan with his tears fell. Down and down it went until it finally settled. The flattened arm of Bulan became the earth, and the tears became the rivers and seas. Time came when two hairs sprang from Bulan’s cut arm, and from these two hairs sprang man and woman.

Thus the earth and man came into being.

Ang-ngalo and Aran, popular beliefs say, lived before the creation of the sky, the sea, the land, and, for that matter, man. They were beings, with human form, of formidable proportions. They are believed to be the biggest giants in legend. Ang-ngalo’s head reached the heavens, and he could make the distance between Manila and Vigan in one step. The earth trembled when he walked, and he could be heard throughout the world when he spoke or laughed.

Ang-ngalo created the world at the command of the supreme god. Who this god was, the legends don’t mention. In the beginning the earth was all plain; there were no seas, no mountains, no hills, no valleys. Ang-ngalo dug the earth with his fingers, and with the earth he extracted, he formed the present mountains and hills. He urinated into the bigger and deeper holes and they became the present oceans and seas. He spat and the sputum became the first man and woman. He put them in a bamboo tube, sealed the tube, and cast it into the sea. The tube was tossed on the waves to the Ilocos shore, and the man and woman came out of it and lived in the Ilocos. Then he put up the sky, the sun, the moon, and arranged the stars.

There is a divergence of belief as to the place of origin of Ang-ngalo and Anan. Some Ilocano legends say that they came from a land near the south pole inhabited by giants. They had three daughters who were not as big as they were. According to one story, Ang-ngalo and Aran, in one of their wanderings about the earth, came upon an enormous treasure of pearls in the Sulu Sea, which they collected in their bags. When they were in what is now the Visayan islands, they quarrelled over the pearls. It was a terrible struggle which shook the earth to its foundations. The land broke up into many parts, some of which subsided beneath the sea. Hence the great number of islands in the Visayas.

First the deities made stone but the stone could not speak. Then they made earth and the earth could speak. The earth became a man, the Tagbanuwa. Finally the deities gave man the elements of fire, the flint-like stones, iron, and tinder, as well as rice and rice-wine. Now that the people had rice-wine (tabad), they could call the deities and the spirits of their dead.

The creator made the first man, Adan. But he was like a stone for he could not speak. Then the creator made earth and the man could speak. The creator felt a deep pity for Adan, as he had no companion. One day Adan went to sleep and when he awoke, he had a companion, Iba.

Now, the couple had three children. One afternoon Adan went to sleep. As he was only wearing a loincloth, his scrotum and penis were exposed. The first child laughed very hard at this sight and was exceedingly impolite. He became the father of the Tagbanuwa. The second child also laughed but not so hard. He became father of the Moros. The third child took a blanket and carefully covered his father’s exposed parts. This was the origin of the Tagbanuwa.

After Masikampu had told his myth, he remarked: “Isn’t this true! Look at the different people. The Tagbanuwa are very poor. They have nothing. The Moros have more.” In this myth, Clemente identified Mangindusa as the “creator.” Dunglad said that this myth was not true. It is very likely that Christian influence has caused some Tagbanuwa to ascribe more embracive functions to Mangindusa.

A long, long time ago, the universe was full of gods and goddesses. Of all these gods there existed one supreme god by the name of Mangechay. He ruled the universe for several millenniums with great power.

These gods lived in the different planets, and their common temple was suspended in the air. These planets were far apart. It took hundreds of years to go from one planet to another.

The great god who ruled over them lived in the sun and his bride lived in the moon. Their daughter lived in a planet called after her name (presumably Venus).

The supreme god sent for all his vassals to meet in great council to decide on a certain affair in the universe. The gods responded to the call and the elements were disturbed greatly by the swiftness of their chariots.

As soon as they gazed at the beautiful daughter of Mangechay who was seated on her golden chair the gods were charmed at her beauty. Instead of deciding on the affair of the universe, the gods proposed marriage to the pretty goddess.

The great god was troubled and did not know on whom he should confer the hand of his daughter. Finally he decided that the question was to be settled by combat. The gods returned to their respective abodes and made the necessary preparations.

The encounter lasted for several thousand years and nearly all the gods perished. During the battle the daughter of Mangechay died and consequently the trouble ended. The great god, after the combat, looked down and saw the earth of today to his great surprise. The earth was formed by the great masses of stones used in the fight.

In the beginning there were no people on the earth.

Lumawig, the Great Spirit, came down from the sky and cut many reeds. He divided these into pairs which he placed in different parts of the world, and then he said to them, “You must speak”.

Immediately the reeds became people, and in each place was a man and a woman who could talk, but the language of each couple differed from that of the others.

Then Lumawig commanded each man and woman to marry, which they did. By and by there were many children, all speaking the same language as their parents. These, in turn, married and had many children. In this way there came to be many people on the earth.

Now Lumawig saw that there were several things which the people on the earth needed to use, so he set to work to supply them. He created salt, and told the inhabitants of one place to boil it down and sell it to their neighbors. But these people could not understand the directions of the Great Spirit, and the next time he visited them, they had not touched the salt.

Then he took it away from them and gave it to the people of a place called Mayinit. These did as he directed, and because of this he told them that they should always be owners of the salt, and that the other peoples must buy of them.

Then Lumawig went to the people of Bontoc and told them to get clay and make pots. They got the clay, but they did not understand the moulding, and the jars were not well shaped. Because of their failure, Lumawig told them that they would always have to buy their jars, and he removed the pottery to Samoki. When he told the people there what to do, they did just as he said, and their jars were well shaped and beautiful. Then the Great Spirit saw that they were fit owners of the pottery, and he told them that they should always make many jars to sell.

In this way Lumawig taught the people and brought to them all the things which they now have.

The sun gods, and the deities of the sky world in general, occupy the most important place in the Igorot religion. Place-spirits and animal deities are likewise highly developed. At a place called Kágubátan, at the foot of the sacred mountain Múgao in eastern Lepanto, is a small lake full of sacred eels which the people guard with great care. They believe that if these eels were killed the springs would all dry up and they would have no water for their terraced rice fields. The eels are fed every day with rice and sweet potatoes by the children of the village, who, as they approach the lakelet, sing a peculiarly sweet and mournful song, upon hearing which the eels all rise to the surface of the water and approach the shore to receive their food.

To the Ifugao’s, Mak-no-ngan was the greatest of all the gods. It was he, they believed, who created the earth and the place of the dead.

The place of the dead was divided into many sections. The most important of these sections were Lagud and Daya. Lagud was set aside for those who died of sickness. They were the most favored my Mak-no-ngan. Daya was set aside for those who died of violence. They remained restless and unhappy, until their deaths were avenged by their relatives.

After Mak-no-ngan created the earth, he made Uvigan in his image. Uvigan, then, was the first man. Mak-no-ngan gave him the entire earth to enjoy. But he remained unhappy just the same, because he was lonely.

Seeing this, Mak-no-ngan made Bugan, the first woman. Then he told Uvigan, “Take this woman and be happy with her”. And for many years the couple lived in innocence, happiness, and peace.

Now, on the earth, there grew a tree which was different from any other. From the very beginning, Mak-no-ngan had warned the couple against it. “Don’t eat its fruit”, he told them, “because it is evil. It will only make you unhappy”.

But Mak-no-ngan’s warning only made Bugan all the more curious about the tree – especially since it was beautiful and its fruit looked tempting. She tried hard to keep away from it, but she could not help herself. Again and again, almost against her will, her feet would lead her to it. And her mouth would water as she gazed at the ripe fruit.

Finally, Bugan could not contain herself any longer. One day, she went straight to the tree, plucked one of the fruit, and sank her teeth into it. It was good. She liked it so much that she was seized with a desire to share it with Uvigan.

And so she went to Uvigan, saying, “Here, Uvigan, taste this”.

“Isn’t that the fruit that Mak-no-ngan forbade us to eat”? Uvigan wanted to know.

“Yes, and it’s very good”, said Bugan. “It tastes better than any other fruit I’ve eaten”.

“But what will Mak-no-ngan say”? asked Uvigan.

“He doesn’t need to know”, said Bugan.

“He will, though”, said Uvigan. “He’s a god, and he has ways of finding out”.

“Then why didn’t he punish me the moment I plucked the fruit?”, Bugan asked.

“Just the same, it’s wrong and wicked of you to have plucked and eaten the fruit”, Uvigan pointed out. “You should not have disobeyed Mak-no-ngan”.

“Well”, said Bugan, “I don’t see, anyway, why he should have forbidden us to eat the fruit in the first place, unless he wants to save it for himself. But he can’t possibly eat all of it. There’s plenty and to spare”.

“Perhaps you’re right”, agreed Uvigan. “Let me have a bite of the fruit”.

Bugan gave it to him. He took a bite, and another, and another, as his eyes lighted with pleasure.

Nothing happened to Uvigan and Bugan right away. But little by little, they grew discontented and unhappy. And they began to quarrel with each other. For evil had entered their lives.

Uvigan and Bugan bore many children. But they were all unruly, disobedient, and troublesome. And after some years, Uvigan died in deep sorrow, leaving Bugan alone to run the household.

The children of Uvigan and Bugan grew more and more wicked, until Mak-no-ngan could no longer control his anger. To punish them, he caused the rice plants to wither and die; so that, in the end, they had nothing to eat.

Filled with pity for her hungry and suffering children, Bugan knelt on the ground and prayed that they might live. Then, with a great effort, she took hold of her breast and pressed them hard, until two streams of milk flowed to the ground.

Bugan’s milk kept some of her children alive for a while, but, as it slowly ran out, she became more and more anxious about the welfare of her children. And she continued to press her breasts harder and harder, until blood flowed in torrents to the ground.

Seeing Bugan’s sacrifice, Mak-no-ngan took pity on her and on her children. And so he made The rice plants grow once more. This time, however, some of the plants bore white grains; while the others bore red grains. The white grains were Bugan’s milk, while the red grains were her blood.

After the world was made and the coconut palms had borne fruit, two coconuts, well ripened, happened to fall into the sea on whose shore their palm tree was growing, whose waters received them and carried them on its waves for many days wherever the wind and current wanted, until one day when the sea was raging, it threw them with violence against some rocks. Ready to hatch—as if they were eggs they broke open with the blow and—as if preordained—there came forth from the larger a man, who was the first one, whom they call Laki, and from the smaller a woman, whom they call Baye. And from these two as the first parents of the human race, all people are descended.

Thousands of years ago, there was no land, sun, moon, or stars, and the world was only a great sea of water, above which stretched the sky. The water was the kingdom of the goddess Maguayan, and the sky was ruled by the great god, Kaptan.

Maguayan had a daughter called Lidagat, the sea, and Kaptan had a son known as Lihangin, the wind. The gods agreed to the marriage of their children, so the sea became the bride of the wind. A daughter and three sons were born to them.

Likalibutan had a body of rock and was strong and brave; Liadlao was formed of gold and was always happy; Libulan was made of copper and was weak and timid; and the beautiful Lisuga had a body of pure silver and was sweet and gentle. Their parents were very fond of them, and nothing was wanting to make them happy.

After a time Lihangin died and left the control of the winds to his eldest son Likalibutan. The faithful wife Lidagat soon followed her husband, and the children, now grown up, were left without father or mother. However, their grandparents, Kaptan and Maguayan, took care of them and guarded them from all evil.

After some time, Likalibutan, proud of his power over the winds, resolved to gain more power, and asked his brothers to join him in an attack on Kaptan in the sky above. They refused at first, but when Likalibutan became angry with them, the amiable Liadlao, not wishing to offend his brother, agreed to help. Then together they induced the timid Libulan to join in the plan.

When all was ready, the three brothers rushed at the sky, but they could not beat down the gates of steel that guarded the entrance. Likalibutan let loose the strongest winds and blew the bars in every direction. The brothers rushed into the opening, but were met by the angry god Kaptan. So terrible did he look that they turned and ran in terror, but Kaptan, furious at the destruction of his gates, sent three bolts of lightning after them.

The first struck the copper Libulan and melted him into a ball. The second struck the golden Liadlao and he too was melted. The third bolt struck Likalibutan and his rocky body broke into many pieces and fell into the sea. So huge was he that parts of his body stuck out above the water and became what is known as land.

In the meantime the gentle Lisuga had missed her brothers and started to look for them. She went toward the sky, but as she approached the broken gates, Kaptan, blind with anger, struck her too with lightning, and her silver body broke into thousands of pieces.

Kaptan then came down from the sky and tore the sea apart, calling on Maguayan to come to him and accusing her of ordering the attack on the sky. Soon Maguayan appeared and answered that she knew nothing of the plot as she had been asleep deep in the sea. After some time, she succeeded in calming the angry Kaptan. Together they wept at the loss of their grandchildren, especially the gentle and beautiful Lisuga, but even with their powers, they could not restore the dead back to life. However, they gave to each body a beautiful light that will shine forever.

And so it was the golden Liadlao who became the sun and the copper Libulan, the moon, while Lisuga’s pieces of silver were turned into the stars of heaven. To wicked Likalibutan, the gods gave no light, but resolved to make his body support a new race of people. So Kaptan gave Maguayan a seed and she planted it on one of the islands.

Soon a bamboo tree grew up, and from the hollow of one of its branches, a man and a woman came out. The man’s name was Sikalak and the woman was called Sikabay. They were the parents of the human race. Their first child was a son whom they called Libo; afterwards they had a daughter who was known as Saman.

Pandaguan, the youngest son, was very clever and invented a trap to catch fish. The very first thing he caught was a huge shark. When he brought it to land, it looked so great and fierce that he thought it was surely a god, and he at once ordered his people to worship it. Soon all gathered around and began to sing and pray to the shark. Suddenly the sky and sea opened, and the gods came out and ordered Pandaguan to throw the shark back into the sea and to worship none, but them.

All were afraid except Pandaguan. He grew very bold and answered that the shark was as big as the gods, and that since he had been able to overpower it he would also be able to conquer the gods. Then Kaptan, hearing this, struck Pandaguan with a small lightning bolt, for he did not wish to kill him but merely to teach him a lesson. Then he and Maguayan decided to punish these people by scattering them over the earth, so they carried some to one land and some to another. Many children were afterwards born, and thus the earth became inhabited in all parts. Pandaguan did not die. After lying on the ground for thirty days he regained his strength, but his body was blackened from the lightning, and his descendants became the dark-skinned tribe, the Negritos.

As punishment, his eldest son, Aryon, was taken north where the cold took away his senses. While Libo and Saman were carried south, where the hot sun scorched their bodies. A son of Saman and a daughter of Sikalak were carried east, where the land at first was so lacking in food that they were compelled to eat clay.

And so the world came to be made and inhabited.

In the beginning there was only sea and sky-so says a Visayan myth.

In the beginning of the world there was nothing more than sky and water, and between the two, a hawk was flying which, getting angry at finding no place to alight or rest, turned the water against the sky, which was offended and so scattered the water with islands and then the hawk had some place to nest. And when itwas on one of them along the seashore, the current threw up a piece of bamboo at its feet, which the hawk grabbed and opened by pecking, and from the two sections of the bamboo, a inan came out of the one and a woman from the other. These, they say, married with the approval of Linog, which is the earthquake, and in time they had many children, who fled when their parents got angry and wanted to drive them out of the house and began to hit them with sticks. Some got in the inner room of the house, and from these the grandees or nobles are descended; others went down the steps and from these the limawa are descended, who are the plebeian people; and from the children who remained hidden in the kitchen, they say the slaves are descended.

With local variations, the myth was known all over the Visayas. In a Panay version, the bamboo itself was produced by a marriage between the sea breeze and the land breeze-probably the primordial pair of deities, Kaptan and Magwayen-but in Leyte and Samar, the first man and woman issued from two young coconuts floating on the water and pecked open by the bird. The highlanders of Panay listed two other categories of fleeing children-those who hid in the kitchen ash box and became the ancestors of the blacks, and those who fled to the open sea. The most detailed account was recorded from the coastal people of Panay, probably in Oton (Iloilo).

In this version, the man and woman who came forth from the bamboo were Si Kalak (that is, laki, male) and Si Kabai (female), and they had three children-two sons, Sibo and Pandagwan, and a daughter, Samar. Samar and Sibo married and had a daughter named Lupluban, who married her uncle Pandagwan, the inventor of the fishnet, and they, in turn, had a son named Anoranor, whose son Panas was the inventor of war. Pandagwan's first catch was a shark which died when he took it out of the water, the first death in the world; grieved, he mourned its death and blamed the gods Kaptan and Magwayen, who, angered, killed him with a thunderbolt. But thirty days later they revived him from the underworld and restored him to the land of the living. But during his absence his wife had been won over by Marakoyrun with a stolen pig and would not now return to him. So he went back to the land of the dead, setting the pattern of mortality for all mankind.

In the beginning everything was shapeless and formless. The earth, the sky, the sea, and the air were almost mixed up. In a word, there was only confusion. Then from the depth of this formless void there appeared the god Tungkung Langit and the goddess Alunsina.

It was not known just where these two deities came from but it is related by old Bisayan folk that Tungkung Langit fell in love with Alunsina. After he had courted her for many years, they married and made their home in the highest part of heaven. There the water was always warm and the breeze was forever cool. In this place order and regularity began.

Tungkung Langit was a loving, hard-working god. He wanted to impose order over the confused world. He decided to arrange the world so that the heavenly bodies would move regularly. On the other hand, Alunsina was a lazy, jealous, selfish goddess. She sat at the window all day doing nothing.

Sometimes she would leave her home, sit down by a pool near the door, and comb her long, jet-black hair all day long. One day Tungkung Langit told his wife that he would be away for some time. He said he must make time go on smoothly and arrange everything in the world.

When he was gone, Alunsina set the breeze to spy on Tungkung Langit. Tungkung Langit found this out and he became very angry. After he returned home, he told her that it was ungodly of her to be jealous since there were no other gods in the world except the two of them.

Alunsina resented this reproach, and they quarreled. In his anger, Tungkung Langit drove his wife away. No one knew where she went. Several days later, Tungkung Langit felt very lonely. He realized that he should not have lost his temper. But it was too late.

Once vibrant with Alunsina’s sweet voice, his home became cold and desolate. In the morning when he woke up, he would find himself alone. In the afternoon when he came home, he would feel the same loneliness creeping deep in his heart because there was no one to meet him at the doorstep or soothe the aching muscles of his arms.

For months, Tungkung Langit was in utter desolation. He could not find Alunsina, try hard as he would. And so, in desperation, he decided to do something in order to forget his sorrows. For months and months he thought, but his mind seemed pointless; his heart weary and sick. He needed something to ease his lonely world.

One day, while he was sailing across the regions of the clouds, a thought came to him. He would make the sea and the earth, and the earth and the sea suddenly appeared. However, the sombre sight of the lonely sea and the barren land irritated him. So he came down to earth and planted the ground with trees and flowers.

Then he took his wife’s treasured jewels and scattered them in the sky, hoping that when Alunsina would see them she might be induced to return home. The goddess’s necklace became the stars, her comb the moon and her crown the sun. However, despite Tungkung Langit’s efforts, Alunsina did not come back.

Until now, some elders of Panay say Tungkung Langit lives alone in his palace in the skies. Sometimes, he would cry out his pent-up emotion and his tears would fall down upon the earth. When it thunders hard, it is Tungkung Langit sobbing, calling for his beloved Alunsina to come back, entreating her so hard that his voice reverberates across the fields and the countryside.

According to the Sulod myth, a long time ago there was no land. There were only the sky and wide expanse of water called linaw.

Then one day there appeared two people—Laki and Bayi. These people were of extraordinary size. Just where they came from was not known. One day Bayi (female) caught an earthworm called lagu-lagu. Out of curiosity, she held it on her palm and as she did this the creature threw out its excreta. The excreta grew and grew until it became the earth.

When the earth became big, Laki and Bayi went down to live on it. The married each other. When Bayi became pregnant, Laki prepared for her an amakan (a mat of thin bamboo splints) on which to lie down during her delivery.

Bayi gave birth to many children. The first set of her children came out of her finger-tips. These were the wild pigs, the deer and other game animals now roaming the mountain sides. These animals are still wild today because their ancestors ran away immediately after birth without waiting to be given names by their parents.

The second set of children came out of the tips of Bayi’s toes. These were marine creatures like the eel, the Balanak (a type of freshwater fish), all creatures living in the river and streams. Following the fish and eels were the domestic animals such as the dogs, the cats, and the chickens. They came out of the calves of Bayi’s legs. Out of her thighs came the wild birds—the crows, the ribariba and many others. Again these creatures were wild because they did not wait to be named but flew away immediately after birth. The last set of children who came out of Bayi’s genitalia consisted of three handsome boys—Hukum, Hikap and Sit.

These boys grew to be sturdy young men. To find out who among them was well behaved and good, Laki devised a way of testing them. One hot noon, after lunch, he lay down on the floor and purposely let out his scrotum from his clout. Then he went to sleep. When Hukum came up into the house when they returned from their hunt, he saw his father’s scrotum and he burst into laughter. Suddenly he turned black as though he had been burnt.

Following him was Hikap, the second son. Upon seeing their father’s genitals he smiled in amusement and he turned slightly brown. The last one to come up was Sit, who, upon seeing their father’s position, stepped forward and covered the exposed genitals. He remained maputi (fair-skinned).

When Laki woke up, he called his three sons to his side. He asked them what each would choose from three kinds of gifts he would like to give each of them: a golden chair, a beautifully carved bolo, and a pedang (headwear adorned with silver coins). Hukum chose the golden chair, Hikap the beautifully carved bolo, and Sit took what his brothers left, the headwear.

Next, Laki went beside the window. Looking out, he pointed to what he described as a “golden fish swept by the water out of the shore”. On hearing this, Hukum jumped out of his seat to take a look. He was followed by Hikap who changed his mind before he reached the window, and returned to his seat. Sit rose but did not go beside the window, instead he sat on Hukum’s golden chair. Turning to his three sons, after a while, Laki said:

“You, Hukum, because your conduct has been unbecoming and you have been very greedy, you’ll only die but never become rich. You will have to live by begging from your brothers and by hunting with bow and arrow. You, Hikap, you won’t earn a living until you make use of that bolo and till the soil. But you, Sit, because of your exemplary conduct, you will find living easy. Even if you don’t work, you’ll become rich”.

When these three young men came of marriageable age, they separated. Hukum became the father of the ati (Negritos), whose children still roam the mountainside begging for food and hunting with bow and arow; Sit went far, far away and was not heard of until his children returned, and Hikap went mountainward and became the father of the Sulod people.

The first portion of the story of creation as related by an old ma-aram tells of a primeval man called Tagna-an whose father is Hugna-an, a busalian. Tagna-an was the first male on earth. He had a female companion named Humihinahon. Tagna-an was born on the bubbles of the sea while Humihinahon was born between the water and the sky. It is said that each one took turns watching the other while asleep. Meanwhile, the party who was awake played with the sand and formed objects as he pleased. Out of this leisurely activity, the mountains, springs, trees, grasses, animals, and other objects came into existence. Much later, Humihinahon made a toy doll out of the sand. He gave it life and it became Adan. From the latter’s rib taken when he was asleep, Eba, his female companion came to being.

The world is generally believed to be composed of seven layers, arranged one over the other starting from the bottom layer. The first layer is the base and is not inhabited. The second layer is composed of water and is inhabited by sea-living creatures. The third layer is made of soil and is inhabited by underground spirits called idalmunon. The fourth layer, located at the center, is the middle layer of the earth’s center. It is inhabited by human beings and several kinds of engkantu living on land. The fifth layer is the atmosphere directly above us and is inhabited by supernaturals or environmental spirits who fly as a mode of travel. The sixth layer is the abode of deceased ancestors, the progenitors of the present- day ma-aram. They are joined by the angels and saints. The seventh and the last layer is the abode of the Supreme Being, the Maka-ako (creator).

The beings inhabiting the sixth and seventh layers are referred to as the ibabawnon (“those beings above”) because they inhabit the place above man’s terrestrial plane. They are also called langitnon (“those of the heavens”) to designate their abode and their closeness to Maka-ako who stays in the high heavens. The spirit beings inhabiting the different layers of the world are described below.

In the beginning of time it is said, there was only the sky and there was only the sea. And a bird of prey flew between the sky and the sea without finding a place to rest. For there was no place to alight in the sky and nowhere in the sea.

And tired of flying continuously, the bird thought to create a quarrel between the sky and the sea. Flying upwards, the bird said to the sky: The sea has said that it wishes to rise and submerge you with water. And the sky said: If it does so, that will be unfortunate, for I will hurl upon it rocks and islands. I will drop into the sea so many rocks and islands that it will have to go around these and there will be too little space for the waves to rise high enough to drown me.

This the bird reported at once to the sea, who became so angry that it started throwing its waves up with such force and determination that the sky began to fear. It raised itself up a little higher to keep from being submerged. Do you see what it is trying to do? said the bird, flying from the sea to the sky. Whereupon the aroused sea redoubled its vigor and rose up to even greater heights. And the sky, no longer able to contain itself, began to throw down many rocks and many islands which thundered to the bottom of the sea. With their weight the sea subsided to its former level, for with the rocks and the islands, it could no longer rise to any great height.

The bird of prey gleefully flew down, finding rest at last from its continuous and wearying flight, upon a bit of earth.

While the bird rested on the island, a length of bamboo with two nodes was washed to the shore by the surf, roughly hitting the feet of the tired bird. The bird moved farther down the shore to avoid it but again the bamboo was washed ashore to where the bird was again hitting its feet. Thereupon the maddened bird pounced upon the bamboo and began to peck hard at the nodes.

The strength of the pecking split open the piece of bamboo. And, lo and behold, a brown sturdy creature was revealed sleeping in the hollow of the first node. And from the other node, a creature with supple limbs and flowing hair stepped down. And they stood on the vast and quiet island — the first man and woman upon the world.

The man (whose name was Calgue), approached the woman (whose name was Cabaye). He said: Now surely we must be wedded together so as to multiply and fill the earth with children. But the woman appeared stricken at this proposal. How can we marry, said she, when we are brother and sister, having come, as you can see, from the same bamboo. If we marry we shall be punished by our gods Maguay and Malaon.

Do not be afraid, the man told the first woman. It is all right for us to marry. But if you have any doubt, let us ask the fish in the sea. And agreeing on this, they walked to the edge of the sea and asked the silvery tunnies who replied that it was all right, they had also married, brothers and sisters together, and had multiplied greatly, as the man and woman could see, and they had not been punished by the gods for it.

But still the woman did not want to marry her brother for fear of the wrath of their gods. If you are still uncertain, said the man. then let us see what the birds have to say And they walked into the cool of the forest to ask the opinion of the doves resting in the trees. And the doves gave the same reply as the fishes, saying that it was good that the man and the woman should marry and beget children, for they themselves had done so, for which reason they had multiplied so much on earth, and the gods had not been displeased.

But still the woman would not marry her brother for fear of their gods. She said if she was to marry, it would only be after asking some god of their own, and if he said yes, then they would marry, but not before. So the first man agreed that they should ask their own god Linok who was the god of the earthquake. And Linok replied that it was all right, it was understandable, it was proper that they should marry in order to enlarge the world with their children, and never would the gods rage.

And so at last the woman was convinced, because the fishes and the birds and Linok, the god of the earthquake had said so. And the first man and woman were wedded by Linok. And they were happy, it is said.

A little later, the woman became pregnant, and gave birth all at one time to a large family of boys and girls. These children, however, grew up to be idlers, doing nothing but eating and sleeping all day. They did nothing worthwhile to help in their sustenance, and much less did they help their parents to earn a living. The time came when the children could no longer be supported, but still they never would do a stroke of work. Thereupon the parents became enraged and decided to throw the children out of their house.

The father took a fat stick, and on entering the house and seeing them all still playing and idling, began to shout: Get out of this house or I will beat you to death, each and everyone! And the children scampered away in terror, never having seen the father so angry.

Some of the children fled outside of the house of their father; others ran into the bedroom, some stayed in the living room though cowering. Still others went to the kitchen, hiding themselves among the unwashed pots and the chimneys.

And so it came about that from those who entered the bedroom came descendants who were lords and chiefs, and therefore respected. And from those who stayed in the living room came the warriors and nobles who were free and paid nothing. And from those who hid behind the walls of the house descended the slaves. Those who fled to the kitchen and hid among the sooty pots spawned the Negritos, who live in the mountains of the Philippines. As for those who left their father’s house and never returned nor were ever heard from, came all the other peoples in the world.

Once there was a bird, a big bird. That bird was always flying over the forest and alighting among the branches of the big trees. One day the bird alighted on a big bamboo stalk. The stalk cracked and a voice was heard, saying: "please swing the bamboo stalk so that it will break." When the bird heard this he shook the bamboo until it was cut in the middle. Suddenly a man appeared and when he saw the pieces that was left, he shook it up until that remaining part of the stalk fell down. When it fell down a woman came out and they bowed to each other. After a few hours talk they consented to live together. They were the first man and woman that lived on earth.

Thousands of years ago, when Laon first created the world, the earth was devoid of human beings and animals, except a single bird, the Manaol. This bird was the only pet of Laon, who told her to take care of her feathers. However, in spite of the feat that she was required to obey him, otherwise some sort of punishment would be inflicted upon her, she was free to wonder anywhere-to scour the wilderness of the earth, or to dive and stay in the dept of the seas.

Once, it so happened that in the couse of the wondering of this Manaol in the forest, she was caught in the horny stems of rattan. She tried to get out by flapping her wings, but her effort was in vain. After a while, many of her feathers, and large and small, were torn from her body and wings. As she could not get away, she called for help. Soon Laon came full of anger. He then released her, but not without punishment. He said, "because of your miscanthus, I will make your life sad. Henceforth, I will create other creaturs to molest and frighten you. But of your fallen feathers these creatures will come; and out of your eggs deposited in the hallow of a tree, I will make living, which shall be more powerful than you."

Then she heard what her master spoke, she became frightened. Then, her fright increased when she saw her small feathers transforming themselves into flying birds and insects, and her large plumes, into creeping animals.

While she was a mute with despair and awe, she remembered her eggs in the hallow of a tree. Her mind was very much troubled about what would become of them. One day, expecting to find living beings from them, she visited the place, where they were deposited. As soon as she reached the spot, she beheld two strange forms, a man and a woman. Immediately, the heart of this poor Manaol sunk in an agony of despair and down she fell, never to rise again. These man, woman and all other creatures took her place on earth, thus becoming the first inhabitants of this great globe.

There is a Manuvu legend that explains why Mindanao is so endowed. Accordingly in the beginning there was Manama, the creator of many things. In his solitude he felt the need for assistance and so created the diwatas and anitus. After these he created the world by cutting his finger nails and molding them into a mass. The waterways and rivers he made by scratching the surface of rocky matter. But this was not enough. The world was barren and no plants would grow on it except a tree called katungaw-tungaw. Frustrated, Manama left the earth alone.

One day he came upon the lush green world of Oggasi, the one-eyed god. Manama was filled with envy for it was beyond his powers to create anything like it. So he assigned a diwata to secure its secret for him – the answer, soil! The diwata created bees and wasps to search for soil. They found it only in Oggasis world. By sticking the soil to their feet they succeeded in bringing it out unseen and so escaped the wrath of Oggasi. Then they proceeded to their creator, the diwata who was visiting the earth in a place between two rivers in Central Mindanao. The diwata welcomed his pets and scattered the soil. To show the creator his work he left some rocks uncovered. These became the cliffs and mountains. Seeds stolen from the world of Oggasi started to sprout into what we now call the coconut, breadfruit, and betelnut. Oggasi in learning of the theft became a constant source of evil to man. It is said that his evil assistants hide among certain trees and animals, jumping at any opportunity to thwart man. In turn Manama’s diwatas and anitus, the keepers of his creatures, stand ready to assist man.

“In the beginning was MElú—a being of such great size as to be beyond comparison with any known thing; who was white, having gold teeth, and who sat upon the clouds, and occupied all space above.”He was very cleanly and was constantly rubbing himself with his hands in order that he might keep his skin quite white. The scurf or dead skin which he thus removed, he placed to one side where it accumulated at last to such a heap that it annoyed him. To be rid of this annoyance he made the earth, and being pleased with his work, he decided to make two beings like himself only much smaller in size. This he did from remnants of the material from which he made the earth.”Now, while MElú was making the first two men, and when he had the first one finished, all excepting the nose; and the second one finished all excepting the nose and one other part, Tau Tana (Funtana) or Tau Dalom Tana appeared and demanded of MElú that he be allowed to make the nose. Then began a great argument in which Tau Dalom Tana gained his point and did make the noses and placed them on the faces of the first two people upside down. So great had been the argument over this making and placing of noses that MElú forgot to finish that part of the second person and went away to his place above the clouds, and Tau Dalom Tana went away to his place below the earth. Then came a great rain and the two people on the earth were about to perish on account of the water which ran off their heads into their noses. MElú seeing what was happening came to them and changed their noses, and then told them that they should save all the hair which came from their heads, and all the scurf which came from their bodies to the end that when he came again he might make more people. As time passed there came to be a great many people, and they lived in a village having plenty to eat and no labor but the gathering of such fruits as they desired.”One day when the rest of the people were about the village and the near country, a man and woman who had been left behind fell to gazing, one upon the person of the other, and after a little while they went away apart from the rest and were gone many days, and when they returned the woman carried a child in her arms, and the people wondered and were afraid. When MElú came again soon, knowing what had taken place, he was very angry and he went away abandoning them, and a great drought came, when for two seasons no rain fell and everything withered up and died. At last the people went away, two by two, one man and one woman together, and MElú never again came to visit his people on earth.”

“In the beginning four beings, MElú and Fiuweigh-males, and Dwata and Sawegh (or sEwE or sEweigh)-females, lived on a small earth or island as large as a hat and called salnaoñ. There were no trees or grass on this island, but they had one bird called Baswit. They sent this bird across the waters to secure some earth, the fruit of the rattan and of trees. When it returned MElú took the earth and beat it the same as a woman beats pots until he had made the land, then he planted the seeds in it and they grew. When he had watched it for a time he said: ‘Of what use is land without people’; so the others said, ‘Let us make wax into people.’ They did so, but when they put the wax near to the fire it melted, so they saw they could not make man that way. Next it was decided that they should use dirt, and MElú and Fiuweigh began to make man. All. went well until they were ready to make the nose. Fiuweigh who was making this part put the nose on upside down and when MElú told him that the people would drown if he left it that way he became very angry and refused to change it. When he turned his back, MElú seized the nose quickly and turned it as it now is, and you can see where, in his haste, he pressed his fingers (at the root).”The people they made were Adnato and Andawi, male and female. These two had children, Tapi (or Mastafi) and Lakarol. (Informants disagreed here, part insisting that MEsa, Lakbang, and Mangarang were part of the first people made.) Their descendants were Sinudal (female), Moáy (male), Limbay (female), Madinda (female), Sinnamoway (male), Kamansa (male), Gilay (female), Gomayau (male), Salau (male), Slayen (female), BaEn (female), Kanfal (female), Latara (male).” The last was the father of Alimama, the chief informant of this tale. Inok, dato of Labau, is also of this line, tracing his descent from Lakbang.It is said that MElú and Sawegh now live below, Dwata and Fiuweigh in the sky.

Melu: the creator deity whose teeth are pure gold and whose skin is pure white; created humans with the god Tau Tana.

Tau Tana: created humans with the god Melu amidst a great argument; put people’s noses upside down, a mistake corrected by Melu, also called Tau Dalom Tana.

In the very beginning there lived a being so large that he cannot be compared with any known thing. His name was Melu, and when he sat on the clouds, which were his home, he occupied all the space above. His teeth were pure gold, and because he was very cleanly and continually rubbed himself with his hands, his skin became pure white. The dead skin which he rubbed off his body was placed on one side in a pile, and by and by this pile became so large that he was annoyed and set himself to consider what he could do with it.

Finally Melu decided to make the earth; so he worked very hard in putting the dead skin into shape, and when it was finished he was so pleased with it that he determined to make two beings like himself, though smaller, to live on it.

Taking the remnants of the material left after making the earth he fashioned two men, but just as they were all finished except their noses, Tau Tana from below the earth appeared and wanted to help him.

Melu did not wish any assistance, and a great argument ensued. Tau Tala finally won his point and made the noses which he placed on the people upside down. When all was finished, Melu and Tau Tana whipped the forms until they moved. Then Melu went to his home above the clouds, and Tau Tala returned to his place below the earth.

All went well until one day a great rain came, and the people on the earth nearly drowned from the water which ran off their heads into their noses. Melu, from his place on the clouds, saw their danger, and he came quickly to earth and saved their lives by turning their noses the other side up.

The people were very grateful to him, and promised to do anything he should ask of them. Before he left for the sky, they told him that they were very unhappy living on the great earth all alone, so he told them to save all the hair from their heads and the dry skin from their bodies and the next time he came he would make them some companions. And in this way there came to be a great many people on the earth.

In the beginning there were four beings (Melu, Fiuwe, D’wata, and Sawe), and they lived on an island no larger than a hat. On this island there were no trees or grass or any other living thing besides these four people and one bird (Buswit). One day they sent this bird out across the waters to see what he could find, and when he returned he brought some earth, a piece of rattan, and some fruit.

Melu, the greatest of the four, took the soil and shaped it and beat it with a paddle in the same manner in which a woman shapes pots of clay, and when he finished he had made the earth. Then he planted the seeds from the fruit, and they grew until there was much rattan and many trees bearing fruit.

The four beings watched the growth for a long time and were well pleased with the work, but finally Melu said, “Of what use is this earth and all the rattan and fruit if there are no people”?

And the others replied, “Let us make some people out of wax”.

So they took some wax and worked long, fashioning it into forms, but when they brought them to the fire the wax melted, and they saw that men could not be made in that way.

Next they decided to try to use dirt in making people, and Melu and one of his companions began working on that. All went well till they were ready to make the noses. The companion, who was working on that part, put them on upside down. Melu told him that the people would drown if he left them that way, but he refused to change them.

When his back was turned, however, Melu seized the noses, one by one, and turned them as they now are. But he was in such a hurry that he pressed his finger at the root, and it left a mark in the soft clay which you can still see on the faces of people.

In the beginning there was only a small circular space of intense brightness called a banting. It was surrounded by a rainbow. And only three beings existed.

Two of them sat facing each other in the narrow confines of the banting – one was good, the other evil.

One was the supreme planner, a good Being that looked like man. His name was DIWATA NA MAGBABAYA which means “pure god who wills all things”.

The bad Being also had a human body but he had ten heads, continuously drooling sticky saliva. His name was DADANHAYAN HA SUGAY which means “lord from whom permission is asked”.

These two were held up by a third Being suspended above them who had a hawk-like head, powerful wings and a human body. The hawk-like Being was continually flapping his wings in order to balance the banting because of the two Beings in it who were constantly bickering. The beating of his wings produced the wind. Only the winged Being could cool the heads and thus he was their guardian. His name was AGTAYABUN which means “adviser” or “peace-maker”.

One day Diwata Magbabaya, the Planner Being who looked like man, thought of enlarging the banting. To steady it, he created the earth – the banting was in the sky – so that the poor being could rest.

Diwata Magbabaya was a good planner. He knew, however, that he would have need of the soil on which the Ten-Headed Being was always so difficult to convince. The god with eagle wings immediately saw the problem. Swiftly, he swooped down and scooped some soil from under the Ten-Headed Being.

The Ten-Headed Being was startled and furious. “Why do you get what is mine without my permission”?, he asked. “Don’t be angry” said Diwata Magbabaya. “I have a plan. And it is good for all of us. If you will let me use some of your soil. I will steady the banting and enlarge it. Then there will be enough space to stretch our legs and walk around so that we do not quarrel all the time”.

And so the earth was created. The hawk-like Being could at last rest his wings.

But the soil with which the earth had been made soon became extremely dry. Again Diwata Magbabaya looked longingly at the sticky saliva drooling out of the many-headed Being’s Ten heads. “If you will let me use some of your saliva we can beautify the earth”. the god planner suggested. The Ten-Headed Being was only too flattered to become part of any beautification project. And so he consented. Diwata Magbabaya took some of the saliva and mixed it with the soil. A great rain fell, for endless days water flowed over the earth. When it receded the Beings saw that various shapes had been created. There were mountains, hills, valleys, plains and canyons. Enough water still remained for streams and rivers which flowed into a big hole called the ocean. Lush green grass, trees and flowers sprang from the earth and enveloped it. The earth had indeed become beautiful. The three Beings were delighted. They called the place HALDAN TA PARAISO which means “Garden of Paradise”.

The supreme planner had a new idea. Since we can’t always be here, wouldn’t it be wise to have Beings like us to watch over the earth”?. The winged Being thought it was a great idea and the Ten-Headed Being grudgingly agreed to it.

The three walked around the beautiful Garden. They gathered some earth to serve as the flesh, and water to serve as blood. They cut some fine rattan to serve as the veins and arteries, and the soft wide wood of the andalugung tree to serve as the bones. The Being moistened the earth with water trying to form the figures, but the soil kept crumbling.

Again Diwata Magbabaya looked towards the Ten-Headed Being and the sticky saliva drooling from his many mouths. “Can we have a little to mould these figures”? he asked. Afraid of being left out of the interesting operation, the Ten Headed Being agreed to mix some of his saliva with the earth.

Now Diwata Magbabaya stood up, put his arms on his hips and told the Ten-Headed Being, “You can make the figures. But you must copy me exactly“. The Ten-Headed Being was not quite convinced but he had no argument at hand and so he resentfully did as he was told.

Soon seven figures, each with only one head and no drooling saliva, were finished by the Ten-Headed Being. The three beings were pleased with the result. Diwata Magbabaya put the figures side by side. “Let them alone for a while”, he told the two others. “I shall go up to the sky to think further how to perfect them”.

While the Supreme Planner was gone, however, the Ten-Headed Being decided to work on the figures on his own. He had a few ideas himself. When Diwata Magbabaya happened to look down from the banting he was horrified to see that six of the seven figures were already beginning to move. He rushed down at once.

“Didn’t I tell you not to touch them while I was thinking how to perfect them”? Diwata Magbabaya scolded the Ten-Headed Being.

“What makes you believe you alone can make them perfect”? answered the Ten-Headed Being. “Why do you think only you know how to create”?

‘Maybe not”, said Diwata Magbabaya. “But so far it’s my ideas and plans that have enabled us to create the earth. And it was after my image that the figures were made”.

“Indeed”, said the Ten-Headed Being. “But all the materials used were mine. You had none. Therefore I have as much right as you to do what I want with them”.

Each Superbeing had his point. Each could defend his own arguments. As usual the hawk-like Being with the wings served as judge and head-cooler. Since neither one would give in it was agreed that there should be an armed duel. The victor should be recognized as ‘the greatest’ and could decide what to do with all the figures.

Out came the swords and the duel began. The two opponents struck swords as if each were the final blow. Their flashing blades produced the lightning. The combatants were able to go around the world fighting. The wind referee declared a recess and they went to paradise to appraise their wounds. But neither combatant suffered a single scratch!

So the duel continued. The battle became even fiercer and more furious. Whenever the Being’s feet landed on the ground a loud thunderclap was produced. They battled each other so fast and furiously that they went around the world seven times.

After the seventh round the three again retired to Haldan Ta Paraiso to examine their bodies. And each one was still unscathed. But this time the swords and metal scabbards on their belts had all melted. They slid down their bodies, sank into the ground and became the metals found under the earth.

Since neither the Good Being nor the Bad being could win nor lose they decided to settle the matter amicably. Diwata Magbabaya said, “Since you have already begun work on the six figures, just finish them. But let me work on one figure left”.

Thus it was that the six figures that were finished by the Ten-Headed Being became incantus or guardian spirits.

The talabugta was assigned to look after the soil for cultivation. The ibabagsuk was in charge of the growing plants.

The bulalakaw became guardian of the water and all its living creatures.

The mamemelig was to watch over the forest. The lalawig had as its special charge the beers and their honey.

The mamahandi was to guard over whatever wealth man acquired, therefore his cows and carabaos, his crops and his farm house.

Like all the creatures made from the efforts of the Superbeing, the incantus contained both good and evil qualities (as does man). They take care of nature and will give of its fruits. But they expect respect and gratitude in the form of prayers and sacrifices of pigs and chickens. The six creatures take quick offense and send drought or flood, or pestilence or sickness to those who do not thank them or seek their permission to build a house, or harvest to the field, or to cut the first slice of meat.

Diwata Magbabaya also finished his figure. As a distinguishing feature he endowed it with intelligence. He had created the first human being. To the first man was entrusted the Haldan Ta Paraiso.

The small bits of clay cut off from the seven diwata as they were being carved were not wasted. They became other living creatures. Those scooped from the ampits became birds, fowls, insects and other flying creatures. The clay sliced from the backs of the figures became the food that had to be carried on one’s back such as deer, wild pigs and the like. The bits cut out from between the fingers became the fished and other water creatures that are caught with the fingers. Those cut from the crotch became the animals that one has to ride astride such as horses, cows and carabaos.

Countless ages ago, there was no land throughout the world. There were only the sky and the sea.

In those days of long, long ago, there already lived in heaven a being whom the Tirurays knew as Sualla (or Tullus-God). Sualla had a sister who lived in Bonggo, the kingdom of the dead. Both Sualla and his sister were very powerful, and were able change any object to other forms.

One day Sualla went to the palace of the rising sun to visit eight khnenentaos (statue) which stood against the walls of heaven. The eight khnenentaos were made from the pith of a very hard wood, and had been there since the beginning of time. When he arrived, Sualla touched one of the central figures. The khnenentao he touched was given life and thus the first man was created.

Sualla left the man he created. But the first man was always sad and lonely, he took one of the man’s ribs and made a woman of it. Sualla married the man and the woman. Not long afterwards a very good looking son was born. But, alas, the boy would never stop crying. His cry was so loud that it was heard throughout the universe. He became sick, and the parents were much worried. The woman sent her husband to Sualla to ask medicine for their sick child.

When Sualla heard that his omat (man-creation) was in distress, he was sorry and said that he would never again directly increase his human creations. He gave the necessary medicine for the sick boy.

Before sending the man away, however, Sualla said, “You will meet a man on your way. Do not let him see or take hold of the medicine I have given you”.

On his way the omat met the king of the demons who had been sent by Sinonggol, the sister of Sualla.

“What do you have in your hand there”? the king of the demons asked.

The omat did not answer, so the king of the demons grabbed the medicine and deftly changed it. As soon as Sualla’s creation had back what he thought was his medicine, he hurried on.

When he arrived home, the omat gave the medicine to his boy. The boy died immediately.

The wife again sent her husband to their creator, this time to ask for a burial place for their dead son.

“What did you do to the medicine I gave you?”, Sualla asked.

“The king of the demons took it away from me”, replied the man.

“My sister has been envious of my works again”, muttered Sualla, and he felt sorry. Then he called for his four brothers from the four corners of the world. Their names were Mentail, Micael, Mintlafis, and Osman Ali. When his brothers arrived he ordered them to buy soil from Navi (Prophet) Mohammad so that Mentalalan, the boy who was dead, might be buried.

The four brothers of Sualla proceeded to Navi Mohammad’s place, which was and is, also, in heaven. When they arrived, and were asked their mission, they replied that they had been sent by Sualla to buy some soil. They were immediately given freely what they asked for.

It was a fine morning when they reached the place of Sualla. After deciding the location, Sualla went to Colina, the center of the world, and planted the soil. This soil has now grown and spread throughout the world. After planting the soil, Mentalalan was buried.

From different parts of the body of Mentalalan various food crops grew. The first corn grew from the teeth of Mentalalan. From the navel the first rice sprouted. The hands grew as the first banana trees. God is really a loving and wonderful Being.

Sualla’s sister, Sinonggol, was so jealous of her brother’s work that she threw down her comb, which became the first pig—to eat and destroy the first bananas and other crops. She also spit out her buyo (betel nut chew) and threw it away. The buyo became the first rats, and thus to this day the rats eat and destroy our rice and corn.

It is said that had it not been for the jealousy of Sualla’s sister we should all be living now as immortals. We should never be hungry because the crops would not die away. The bananas, the rice, the corn—all things that Sualla made for us— were changed or modified by Sinonggol.

But we must also take into consideration that Sinonggol did all these things because she loves us. Persons, beasts, insects, plants, and all other things have to die, because she wants them in her abode at Bonggo, the kingdom of the dead.